Types of Language Change

1) LEXICAL change

Neologisms: introduction of new words into a language

• Burrowing/loan words: burrowed form another language
• Compounding: two common nouns join together, can lead to affixation in which one word adopts role as prefix
• Affixation: result of compounding, addition of a prefix to pre-modify a common noun/adjective, or suffix to post-modify a common noun/adjective/verb
• Back-formation: removal of suffix from an affixed noun/adjective creates VERBS: babysitter --> babysit
• Blending- mixing of two common nouns, omission of syllables in between to form one flowing word
• Clipping: dropping syllables to create new abbreviations
• Class conversion: converting word from one WC to another (e.g. noun --> verb)
• Google ->  'to google'/ 'googling', addition of 'to' forms infinitive form, addition of suffix 'ing' creates progressive, present tense
• Scientific/technological progress = linguistics evolves simultaneously to communicate new ideas
• Initialisms: first letter read separately, FBI 
• Acronym: intialism, read together as a word NASA

2) SEMANTIC change/ pragmatic shift: phenomenon 

• Amoleriation: positive semantic shift, adopts a better meaning
• Pejoration: negative semantic shift, word attaches to negative connotations
• Broadening (Extension): semantic bleaching, in which meanings  are lost connotes to a more generic idea
• Narrowing (Specilisaiton): narrowing of semantics, word adopts more a specific, precise meaning

3) PHONOLOGICAL change:

Accent modification, phonetic change = ease of articulation, cultural phenomenon 

• Homogeny in dialect levelling: increased geographical mobility outside of London
• Estuary English
• Glottal stopping
• [l] vocalisation
• Multiethnolects- mass immigration into ethnically heterogeneous countries
• Non-standard phonology of L2 English speakers recycled
• Diphthong shift in MLE: monophthongisation of diphthong sounds: harsher, more clipped
• Caribbean pronunciation
• [k] backing
• metathesis: two  phonemes switch places: 'ask --> aks'
• Northern dilution: conform to RP
• Embodiment of influential power = increase career prospects
• Basil Bernstein: restricted v elaborated code
• Code-switching: social mobility, movement between social classes signified by elevation/degradation in language 
• Labov: Department study, social stratification of the 'post-vocalic r'

4) GRAMMATICAL change:

• Reduced sentence complexity: more simple, minor sentences
• Pronouns: neologisms, semantic shift (generalisation) - 'man'
• Archaic pronouns 'thy', 'thou
• Syntactical change: Currently a SVO lnagugae; previously a SOV language in 17th century
• Negative interrogative formation: reversal of pronoun/negative marker due to contractions, auxillary verbs lead
• 'do you not smoke' 'dont you smoke'
• Grammaticalisation: process in which nouns/verbs become grammatical markers, such as affixes, pronouns and prepositions
• 'going' --> intransitive verb = grammatical marker of futurity